Try again, but not with Arduino. Completely quit Arduino, but leave the small Teensy Loader window open. Turn off the "Auto" button in its toolbar. When Auto mode is active, once you press the pushbutton on Teensy, it will detect and immediately reprogram your Teensy. Normally that's what you want, but for troubleshooting you want Teensy Loader to *not* quickly reprogram your Teensy, so you can watch the window for a visible status of whether your Teensy is able to work with your USB cable.
With Auto mode disabled, press the pushbutton on your Teensy. You should see small the Teensy Loader window respond. If you do, that means the hardware is almost certainly still good. If you get no response or only intermittent or unreliable responses in Teensy Loader, then that's a sure sign of a hardware problem like a bad cable or something messed up with power.
When Teensy Loader (with Auto mode disabled) is able to detect your Teensy, but otherwise you get that "Device Descriptor Request Failed", the cause is almost always a problem with the program you've put onto your Teensy. As a first sanity check, program your Teensy with the LED blink (you will need to press Teensy's pushbutton to do so). If Windows properly detects Teensy while it runs a simple program, but gives "Device Descriptor Request Failed", you can be sure something your program is doing within the first second (while Windows is still trying to detect whatever type of USB device Teensy becomes while running your program) is crashing and preventing your Teensy from responding to Windows.
Every Teensy has a pushbutton so you can recover from bad programs. But if Teensy Loader is hidden behind other windows on your desktop, and Auto mode is turned on (which is the normal state when using Arduino), then pressing the pushbutton on Teensy just causes the same (likely bad) code to be loaded again. For troubleshooting, you need to keep Teensy Loader visiable and watch it while you experiment.